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prenatal and perinatal psychology
Prenatal and perinatal psychology is an interdisciplinary study〔McCarthy WA Nurturing the Possible: Supporting The Integrated Self from the Beginning of Life retrieved from () on May 16, 2007. Quote: "Prenatal and perinatal psychology (PPN) has grown into a multidisciplinary field “dedicated to the in-depth exploration of the psychological dimension of human reproduction and pregnancy and the mental and emotional development of the unborn and newborn child. The heart of the field’s unique contribution is the exploration and understanding of prenatal life, birth and bonding, and infancy from the baby’s point of view."〕〔McCarty, W. A. (2002a). The power of beliefs: What babies are teaching us. Journal of Prenatal & Perinatal Psychology & Health, 16(4). 341-360.〕〔McCarty, W. A. (2004). The CALL to reawaken and deepen our communication with babies: what babies are teaching us. International Doula 12(2), Summer 2004〕 of the foundations of health in body, mind, emotions and in enduring response patterns to life. It explores the psychological and psychophysiological effects and implications of the earliest experiences of the individual, before birth ("prenatal"), as well as during and immediately after childbirth ("perinatal") on the health and learning ability of the individual and on their relationships. As a broad field it has developed a variety of curative and preventive interventions for the unborn, at childbirth, for the newborn, infants and adults who are adversely affected by early prenatal and perinatal dysfunction and trauma. Some of these methods have not been without significant controversy, for example homebirth in the West and in earlier days, LSD psychotherapy for resolving birth trauma.
== Overview ==
Examples of the diversity of interests in the subject are: in neurobiology where it is understood that "experience can change the mature brain - but experience during the critical periods of early childhood organizes brain systems";〔Perry, BD, Pollard, R, Blakely, T, Baker, W, Vigilante, D (1995): Childhood trauma, the neurobiology of Adaptation, and “Use-dependent” Development of the Brain: How “States” become “Traits”, Infant Mental Health Journal, vol 16, no. 4, Winter〕 in psychoneuroendocrinology where there is evidence of an "umbilical affect exchange" which influences the immediate and long- term psychology of behavior;〔Dorner G (G. Dorner, "Die mogliche Bedeutung der pra unloder perinatalen Ernahrung für die Pathogenese der Obesitas." 107-123, quoted by Dorner, "Significance of Hormone-dependent Brain Development and Pre-and Early Postnatal Psychophysiology for Preventive Medicine," 429). "During the pre and/or early post-natal life. systemic hormones and neurotransmitters are capable of acting as organizers of the brain, which is the controller of the neuro-endocrine-immune system. Thus, the quantity of the systemic hormones and neurotransmitters co-determines during a critical period of brain development, the quality, ie. the responsiveness, of their own central nervous system controllers and hence the functional and tolerance ranges of their own feedback systems throughout life ... Abnormal levels of systemic hormones and neurotransmitters, which can be induced by abnormal conditions in the psychosocial and/or natural envlronment. can act as teratogens and lead to permanent physiological and/or psychological dysfunctions in later life. Thus many malfunctions of reproduction. metabolism, information processing, and immunity called up to now idiopathic, essential, cryptogenic, primary or genuine can be explained by pre and/or early postnatal psycho-and/or physiological processes."〕〔Fedor-Freybergh and Vogel, "Encounter with the Unborn: Philosophical Impetus behind Prenatal and Perinatal Psychology and Medicine," xix-xx. "Psychoneuroendocrinologists have already elicited useful data from the preliminary theoretical research in recording fetal response to and retention of outside environmental stimuli (touch, sound, and light stimuli for the most part). Various highly specific biochemical structures (hormones, neurotransmitters and other polypeptide structures) are needed, in direct connection with input phenomena, for the transformation and storage of both sensorial and sensible types of information. Crucial to the formation of the primary central nervous system on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal level, some of these functions are detectable in the very beginning of development of the human being. Thus the embryo successively develops a high sensibility and competency for the potential ability for perception"〕 in bioengineering where the importance to development as well as growth of the fetomaternal system is increasingly understood;〔(BIOFLUID DYNAMICS OF THE HUMAN MATERNAL FETAL SYSTEM )〕 and in clinical maternal-fetal medicine〔Clinical Maternal-Fetal Medicine by Hung N. Winn, John C. Hobbins (Eds) Taylor & Francis; 1st edition (June 15, 2000) English ISBN 1-85070-798-7 ISBN 978-1850707981〕 where the unique symbiotic relationship between a mother and her fetus is explored, and where issues such as maternal stress and the development of later psychopathology in the child are considered〔Herrenkohl L R, "The Anxiety-Prone Personality: Effects of Prenatal Stress on the Infant." In Roy J. Mathew, Ed. The Biology of Anxiety. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1982, pp. 51-86〕〔Antonio J. Ferreira "The Pregnant Woman's Emotional Attitude and Its Reflection on the Newborn." American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 30 (1960): 553-6〕〔Child At Risk: A Report of the Standing Senate Committee on Health, Welfare and Science. Hull: Canadian Government Publishing Center, 1980〕〔Barrett J H W, "Prenatal Influences on Adaptation in the Newborn." In Peter Stratton, Ed. Psychobiology of the Human Newborn. New York: John Wiley S. Sons, 1982, p. 270〕〔Abram Blau, et al., "The Psychogenic Etiology of Premature Births." Psychosomatic Medicine 25 (1963): 201-11〕〔A. J. Ward, "Prenatal stress and childhood pschopathology." Child Psychiatry and Human Development 22 (1991: 97-110〕〔Lars Billing, et al., "The Influence of Environmental Factors on Behavioral Problems in 8 Year-Old Children Exposed to Amphetamine During Fetal Life." Child Abuse & Neglect 18 (1994): 3-9〕〔D. H. Stott, "Follow-up Study from Birth of the Effects of Prenatal Stress." Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 15 (1973): 770-87〕〔Norman L. Corah, et al., "Effects of Perinatal Anoxia After Seven Years. Psychological Monongraphs 79 (1965): 1-32〕〔Sarnoff A. Mednick, "Birth Defects and Schizophrenia, Psychology Today 4 (1971): 48-50〕〔Sarnoff A. Mednick et al., Eds., Fetal Neural Development and Adult Schizophrenia. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991〕〔"Delinquents Said To Have Perinatal Injuries," Psychiatric News, September 1, 1978, p. 26〕 through hormonal mechanisms particularly the HPA axis.〔DINGFELDER S 'Programmed for pathology', review of maternal stress research in APA Online's Monitor of Psychology, retrieved from () May 15, 2007 "While the general or specific vulnerability to mental illness continues to be a hot topic, most scientists agree that maternal stress affects infants through hormonal mechanisms. One such mechanism, discovered through animal studies, involves the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Chronic activation of this system in mothers, says Huizink, may be responsible for HPA dysregulation, their offspring's difficulty controlling stress hormones. HPA dysregulation has been associated with greater emotionality and difficulty calming down after a stressful situation"〕
Although theoretical and psychotherapeutic approaches vary in their treatment of the topic, a common thread is the fundamental importance of pre- and perinatal experiences in the shaping of the personality and in future psychological development. Yet somewhat contrary to the evidence,〔David B. Chamberlain, "Prenatal Intelligence." In Thomas Blum, Ed. Prenatal Perception, Learning and Bonding. Berlin: Leonardo Publishers, 1993, pp. 14-21〕〔A. J. Ward, "Prenatal Stress and Childhood Psychopathology." Child Psychiatry and Human Development 22(1991): 97-110〕〔Adrian Raine, The Psychopathology of Crime: Criminal Behavior as a Clinical Disorder. San Diego: Academic Press, 1993〕 this assertion is not widely supported in psychology. There are widespread doubts regarding the extent to which newborn infants are capable of forming memories, the effects of any such memories on their personality, and the possibility of recovering them from an unconscious mind, which itself is the subject of argument in the field. Only a minority of psychologists have had direct experience of the therapeutic modalities that explore these phenomena and many question the validity and even the existence of repressed memories. However, ''experience'' and ''memory'' are not synonymous, and while a fetal infant may not be able to recall his or her experiences, he or she still lived in those moments and possibly had neurological, psychological or physiological responses to them, which may influence the ongoing development of the mind and/or brain structures.
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